In Hindu philosophy, Brahman is the ultimate reality or the universal substratum from which everything in the universe derives and to which everything returns. It is an abstract, transcendent principle that exists beyond the physical and empirical world. Brahman is often described as ineffable and beyond human comprehension, yet it is the essence that permeates all existence. Central to the teachings of the Upanishads, a key scripture in Hinduism, Brahman is characterized by the concept of Sat-Chit-Ananda, meaning being, consciousness, and bliss. This triadic formulation encapsulates the idea that the ultimate reality is eternal, knowledgeable, and the source of unadulterated joy.
Understanding Brahman often involves differentiating it from the personal gods of Hinduism like Vishnu or Shiva. While these deities are considered manifestations of Brahman tailored to the devotional needs of practitioners, Brahman itself is non-personal and all-encompassing. This distinction is crucial in the philosophical school of Advaita Vedanta, where the scholar Adi Shankaracharya emphasized the non-dual nature of Brahman, arguing that the individual soul (Atman) and Brahman are ultimately identical. This non-dualism posits that the perceived separation between the self and the universe is a result of ignorance, and liberation (moksha) is achieved through the realization of one's true identity as Brahman.
In contrast, other schools of thought like Dvaita and Vishishtadvaita Vedanta maintain a certain distinction between Brahman and the individual soul. Dvaita, founded by Madhvacharya, insists on a dualistic interpretation where God (Brahman) and the individual souls remain forever distinct, with a personal God who is compassionate and predisposed to intervene in the cosmos. Vishishtadvaita, proposed by Ramanuja, posits a qualified-non-dualism where the soul is indeed different from Brahman but is also eternally dependent on Brahman, which pervades and sustains all creation without actually being identical to it.
The pursuit of understanding Brahman is not merely an intellectual exercise but is also deeply intertwined with spiritual practice. Techniques such as meditation, devotion (bhakti), and ethical living are prescribed to realize Brahman. The realization is said to transcend the limitations of language and thought, leading to an experience of absolute-truth that liberates an individual from the cycle of birth and rebirth (samsara). This pursuit and the paths to it are detailed in various Hindu texts, including the Bhagavad Gita and the Upanishads, highlighting that while the ultimate goal is the realization of Brahman, the paths are many and tailored to the diverse needs and predispositions of practitioners, encapsulating the pluralistic ethos of Hindu spiritual practice.